The Chemistry of Attachment
By Linda F. Palmer, DC
Human babies are
born helpless, needing to be entirely cared for and protected.
Luckily, they are born with all the necessary tools and "instructions"
to attain such care for themselves, and to become a loved and
loving part of their family and society. The ingrained neural
and hormonal interactions provided for parent and child to assist
them in this process are among the most powerful in nature. The
hormonal cues are clear and compelling and our instincts can provide
us with all the appropriate responses. Without taking great efforts
to avoid and ignore such urges, parents will naturally follow
the advice of their neurons and hormones, nurturing their babies
and maintaining physical closeness with them.
Once born, baby's
hormonal control systems and brain synapses begin to permanently
organize according to the human interactions she experiences.
Unneeded brain receptors and neural pathways are disposed of,
while those appropriate to the given environment are enhanced.
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Oxytocin-a
Bonding Hormone
Oxytocin is a chemical messenger released in the brain chiefly
in response to social contact, but its release is especially pronounced
with skin-to-skin contact. In addition to providing health benefits,
this hormone-like substance promotes bonding patterns and creates
desire for further contact with the individuals inciting its release.
When the process
is uninterrupted, oxytocin is one of nature's chief tools for
creating a mother. Roused by the high levels of estrogen ("female
hormone") during pregnancy, the number of oxytocin receptors
in the expecting mother's brain multiplies dramatically near the
end of her pregnancy. This makes the new mother highly responsive
to the presence of oxytocin. These receptors increase in the part
of her brain that promotes maternal behaviors.
Oxytocin's first
important surge is during labor. If a cesarean birth is necessary,
allowing labor to occur first provides some of this bonding hormone
surge (and helps ensure a final burst of antibodies for the baby
through the placenta). Passage through the birth canal further
heightens oxytocin levels in both mother and baby.
High oxytocin causes
a mother to become familiar with the unique odor of her newborn
infant, and once attracted to it, to prefer her own baby's odor
above all others'. Baby is similarly imprinted on mother, deriving
feelings of calmness and pain reduction along with mom. When the
infant is born, he is already imprinted on the odor of his amniotic
fluid. This odor imprint helps him find mother's nipple, which
has a similar but slightly different odor. In the days following
birth, the infant can be comforted by the odor of this fluid.
Gradually over
the next days, baby starts to prefer the odor of his mother's
breast, but continued imprinting upon his mother is not food related.
In fact, formula-fed infants are more attracted (in laboratory
tests) to their mother's breast odor than to that of their formula,
even two weeks after birth.
By influencing
maternal behavior and stimulating milk "let down" (allowing
milk to flow) during nursing, oxytocin helps make the first attempts
at breastfeeding feel natural. Attempts at nursing during the
initial hour after birth cause oxytocin to surge to exceptional
levels in both mother and baby. Mothers who postpone nursing lose
part of the ultimate hormone high provided for immediately after
birth. Powerful initial imprinting for mother and baby is intended
to occur chiefly so that mother and baby will be able to find
and recognize each other in the hours and days after birth.
Yet a lifetime
opportunity for bonding and love is not lost if this initial window
is missed. Beyond birth, mother continues to produce elevated
levels of oxytocin as a consequence of nursing and holding her
infant, and the levels are based on the amount of such contact.
This hormonal condition provides a sense of calm and well being.
Oxytocin levels are higher in mothers who exclusively breastfeed
than in those who use supplementary bottles. Under the early influence
of oxytocin, nerve junctions in certain areas of mother's brain
actually undergo reorganization, thereby making her maternal behaviors
"hard-wired."
As long as contact
with the infant remains, oxytocin causes mother to be more caring,
to be more eager to please others, to become more sensitive to
other's feelings, and to recognize nonverbal cues more readily.
Continued nursing also enhances this effect. With high oxytocin,
mother's priorities become altered and her brain no longer signals
her to groom and adorn herself in order to obtain a mate, and
thus a pregnancy. Now that the child has already been created,
mom's grooming habits are directed toward baby. High oxytocin
in the female has also been shown to promote preference for whatever
male is present during its surges (one good reason for dad to
hang around during and after the birth). Prolonged high oxytocin
in mother, father, or baby also promotes lower blood pressure
and reduced heart rate as well as certain kinds of artery repair,
actually reducing lifelong risk of heart disease .
Although baby makes
her own oxytocin in response to nursing, mother also transfers
it to the infant in her milk. This provision serves to promote
continuous relaxation and closeness for both mother and baby.
A more variable release of oxytocin is seen in bottle-fed infants,
but is definitely higher in an infant who is "bottle-nursed"
in the parents' arms rather than with a propped bottle.
Persistent regular
body contact and other nurturing acts by parents produce a constant,
elevated level of oxytocin in the infant, which in turn provides
a valuable reduction in the infant's stress-hormone responses.
Multiple psychology studies have demonstrated that, depending
on the practices of the parents, the resulting high or low level
of oxytocin will control the permanent organization of the stress-handling
portion of the baby's brain -- promoting lasting "securely
attached" or "insecure" characteristics in the
adolescent and adult. Such insecure characteristics include anti-social
behavior, aggression, difficulty forming lasting bonds with a
mate, mental illness, and poor handling of stress.
When an infant
does not receive regular oxytocin-producing responsive care, the
resultant stress responses cause elevated levels of the stress
hormone cortisol. Chronic cortisol elevations in infants and the
hormonal and functional adjustments that go along with it are
shown in biochemical studies to be associated with permanent brain
changes that lead to elevated responses to stress throughout life,
such as higher blood pressure and heart rate. Mothers can also
benefit from the stress-reducing effects of oxytocin-women who
breastfeed produce significantly less stress hormone than those
who bottle-feed .
Nor are fathers
left out of the oxytocin equation. It has been shown that a live-in
father's oxytocin levels rise toward the end of his mate's pregnancy.
When the father spends significant amounts of time in contact
with his infant, oxytocin encourages him to become more involved
in the ongoing care in a self-perpetuating cycle. Oxytocin in
the father also in-creases his interest in physical (not necessarily
sexual) contact with the mother. Nature now provides a way for
father to become more interested in being a devoted and satisfied
part of the family picture through his involvement with the baby.
With all of its
powers, oxytocin is but one of a list of many chemicals that nature
uses to ensure that baby finds the love and care he needs.
Vasopressin
& Protection
Although present and active during bonding in the mother and infant,
vasopressin plays a much bigger role in the father. This hormone
promotes brain reorganization toward paternal behaviors when the
male is cohabitating with the pregnant mother. The father becomes
more dedicated to his mate and expresses behaviors of protection.
Released in response
to nearness and touch, vasopressin promotes bonding between the
father and the mother, helps the father recognize and bond to
his baby, and makes him want to be part of the family, rather
than alone. It has gained a reputation as the "monogamy hormone."
Dr. Theresa Crenshaw, author of The Alchemy of Love and Lust,
says, "Testosterone wants to prowl, vasopressin wants to
stay home." She also describes vasopressin as tempering the
man's sexual drive.
Vasopressin reinforces
the father's testosterone-promoted protective inclination regarding
his mate and child, but tempers his aggression, making him more
reasonable and less extreme. By promoting more rational and less
capricious thinking, this hormone induces a sensible paternal
role, providing stability as well as vigilance.
Prolactin
& Behavior
Prolactin is released in all healthy people during sleep, helping
to maintain reproductive organs and immune function. In the mother,
prolactin is released in response to suckling, promoting milk
production as well as maternal behaviors. Prolactin relaxes mother,
and in the early months, creates a bit of fatigue during a nursing
session so she has no strong desire to hop up and do other things.
Prolactin promotes
caregiving behaviors and, over time, directs brain reorganization
to favor these behaviors . Father's prolactin levels begin to
elevate during mother's pregnancy, but most of the rise in the
male occurs after many days of cohabitation with the infant.
As a result of
hormonally orchestrated brain reorganization during parenthood,
prolactin release patterns are altered. It has been shown that
fathers release prolactin in response to intruder threats, whereas
childless males do not. On the other hand, nursing mothers do
not release prolactin in response to loud noise, whereas childless
females do. In children and non-parents, prolactin surges are
related to stress levels, so it is generally considered a stress
hormone. In parents, it serves as a parenting hormone.
Elevated prolactin
levels in both the nursing mother and the involved father cause
some reduction in their testosterone levels, which in turn reduces
their libidos (but not their sexual functioning). Their fertility
can be reduced for a time as well. This reduction in sexual activity
and fertility is entirely by design for the benefit of the infant,
allowing for ample parental attention and energy. When the father
is intimately involved with the infant along with the mother,
there should be some accord between the desires of the two, and
oxytocin and other chemicals provide for heightened bonding and
non-sexual interest in each other, which serves to retain a second
devoted caretaker for the infant.
Opioids
& Rewards
Opioids (pleasure hormones) are natural morphine-like chemicals
created in our bodies. They reduce pain awareness and create feelings
of elation. Social contacts, particularly touch-especially between
parent and child- induce opioid release, creating good feelings
that will enhance bonding. Odor, taste, activity, and even place
preferences can develop as the result of opioid release during
pleasant contacts, and eventually the sight of a loved one's face
stimulates surges. Opioid released in a child's brain as a conditioned
response to a parent's warm hugs and kisses can be effective for
helping reduce the pain from a tumble or a disappointment.
Parents "learn"
to enjoy beneficial activities such as breastfeeding and holding,
and infants "learn" to enjoy contact such as being held,
carried, and rocked, all as a response to opioid release. Babies
need milk, and opioids are nature's reward to them for obtaining
it, especially during the initial attempts. The first few episodes
of sucking organize nerve pathways in the newborn's brain, conditioning
her to continue this activity. This is the reason that breastfed
babies sometimes have trouble if they are given bottles in the
newborn nursery-early exposure to bottles creates a confusing
association of pleasure with both bottle nipples and the mother's
breast. In fact, any incidental sensations experienced during
rocking, touching, and eating that aren't noxious can become part
of a child's attachment and will provide comfort. It could be
the warmth of mother's body, father's furry chest, grandma's gentle
lullaby, a blanket, or the wood-slatted side of a crib.
Prolonged elevation
of prolactin in the attached parent stimulates the opioid system,
heightening the rewards for intimate, loving family relationships,
possibly above all else. Just as with codeine and morphine, tolerance
to natural opioids can occur, which will reduce the reward level
for various activities over time. But this is not a problem for
attached infants and parents, because higher levels of oxytocin,
especially when created through frequent or prolonged body contact,
actually inhibit opioid tolerance , protecting the rewards for
maintaining close family relationships. On the other hand, consuming
artificial opioid drugs replaces the brain's need for maintaining
family contacts.
Once a strong opioid
bonding has occurred, separation can become emotionally upsetting,
and in the infant possibly even physically uncomfortable when
opioid levels decrease in the brain, much like the withdrawal
symptoms from cocaine or heroin. When opioid levels become low,
one might feel like going home to hold the baby or like crying
for a parent's warm embrace, depending on your point of view.
Sometimes alternate behaviors are helpful. For instance, thumb-sucking
can provide some relief from partial or total withdrawal from
a human or rubber nipple and can even provide opioid-produced
reminiscences for a time.
Norepinephrine
& Learning
Breastfeeding also causes dopamine and its product, norepinephrine
(adrenaline), to be produced, which help maintain some of the
effects of the early bonding. They enhance energy and alertness
along with some of the pleasure of attachment.
Norepinephrine
helps organize the infant's stress control system, as well as
other important hormonal controls in accordance with the nature
of the early rearing experiences. It promotes learning about the
environment-especially learning by memorization that is carried
out by oxytocin, opioids, and other chemical influences.
Pheromones
& Basic Instincts
How does the man's body know to initiate hormonal changes when
he is living with a pregnant female? How can an infant accurately
interpret mother's "odors" that adults often can barely
detect? The answer is pheromones. Among other things, pheromones
are steroid hormones that are made in our skin. Our bodies are
instinctually programmed to react accordingly when we detect these
pheromones around us.
Newborns are much
more sensitive to pheromones than adults. Unable to respond to
verbal or many other cues, they apparently depend on this primitive
sense that controls much of the behavior of lower animals. Most
likely the initial imprinting of baby to odors and pheromones
is not just a matter of preferring the parents' odors, but is
a way nature controls brain organization and hormonal releases
to best adapt baby to its environment. Baby's earliest, most primitive
experiences are then linked to higher abilities such as facial
and emotional recognition. Through these, baby most likely learns
how to perceive the level of stress in the caretakers around her,
such as when mother is experiencing fear or joy. Part of an infant's
distress over separation may be caused by the lost parental cues
about the safety of her environment. Of course the other basic
sensation an infant responds to well is touch, and coincidentally,
body odors and pheromones can only be sensed when people are physically
very near each other.
What the
World Needs Now . . .
Infants universally cry when laid down alone. If we allow ourselves
to listen, our neurons and hormones encourage us in the proper
response. Babies are designed to be frequently fed in a fashion
that requires skin-to-skin contact, holding, and available facial
cues. Beneficial, permanent brain changes result in both parent
and infant from just such actions. Contented maternal behaviors
grow when cues are followed. The enhancement of fatherhood is
strongly provided for as well. A father's participation encourages
his further involvement and creates accord between father and
mother. Frequent proximity and touch between baby and parents
can create powerful family bonding-with many long-term benefits.
Sadly, over the
last century parents have been encouraged by industry-educated
"experts" to ignore their every instinct to respond
to baby's powerful parenting lessons. Psychologists, neurologists,
and biochemists have now confirmed what many of us have instinctually
suspected: that many of the rewards of parenthood have been missed
along the way, and that generations of children may have missed
out on important lifelong advantages.
Endnotes
1. T.R. Insel,
"Oxytocin - a neuropeptide for affiliation: evidence from
behavioral, receptor autoradiographic, and comparative studies,"
Psychoneuroendocrinology 17, no. 1 (1992): 3-35.
2. H. Varendi et al., "Soothing
effect of amniotic fluid smell in newborn infants," Early
Hum Dev (Estonia) 51, no. 1 (Apr 1998): 47-55.
3. R.H. Porter et al., "An
assessment of the salient olfactory environment of formula-fed
infants," Physiol Behav 50, no. 5 (Nov 1991): 907-11.
4. S.S. Knox and K. Uvnas-Moberg,
"Social isolation and cardiovascular disease: an atherosclerotic
pathway?" Psychoneuroendocrinology 23, no. 8 (Nov 1998):
877-90.
5. M. Altemus et al., "Suppression
of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to stress in
lactating women," J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80, no. 10 (Oct
1995): 2965-9
6. R.S. Bridges, "The
role of lactogenic hormones in maternal behavior in female rats,"
Acta Paediatr Suppl 397 (Jun 1994): 33-9.
7. G.L. Kovacs et al., "Oxytocin
and addiction: a review," Psychoneuroendocrinology (Hungary)
23, no. 8 (Nov 1998): 945-62.
8. G.W. Kraemer et al., "A
longitudinal study of the effect of different social rearing conditions
on cerebrospinal fluid norepinephrine and biogenic amine metabolites
in rhesus monkeys," Neuropsychopharmacology 2, no. 3 (Sep
1989): 175-89
© Copyright 2002 Dr. Linda
Folden Palmer, All rights reserved.
Reprinted from the Attachment
Parenting International News, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2002
Dr. Linda Folden Palmer consults
and lectures on natural infant health, optimal child nutrition
and attachment parenting. After running a successful chiropractic
practice focused on nutrition and women’s health for more
than a decade, Linda’s life became transformed eight years
ago by the birth of her son. Her research into his particular
health challenges led her to write Baby
Matters: What Your Doctor May Not Tell You About Caring for Your
Baby. Extensively documented, this healthy parenting
bookpresents the scientific evidence behind attachment parenting
practices, supporting baby's immune system, preventing colic and
sparing drug usage. You can visit Linda’s web site at www.babyreference.com.
